CD1 Introduction to Crime and Deviance 

The sociology of crime and deviance examines the rules and norms that govern society and the behaviors that violate them. At its core, this field explores two key concepts: crime and deviance, both of which are complex and often debated.

Definitions of Crime and Deviance

Crime refers to actions that break the formal laws established by a society. These acts are codified in legal statutes, and breaking them often results in punishment by authorities such as the police or courts. Examples include theft, which involves unlawfully taking someone’s property; assault, which refers to causing physical harm to another person; and fraud, which entails deception for personal gain. However, what constitutes a crime varies between societies and can change over time. For instance, acts like homosexuality were once criminalized in many countries but are no longer considered crimes in many parts of the world today.

Deviance, on the other hand, refers to behaviours that violate social norms and expectations but do not necessarily break formal laws. Examples of deviant behaviour include dressing unconventionally, such as wearing gothic attire in a conservative community; speaking out of turn in formal settings, like interrupting a court session; or engaging in taboo activities, such as public displays of affection in a society that values modesty. Deviance is often linked to societal values and norms—shared principles that dictate what is considered acceptable or unacceptable behaviour.

Social Construction of Crime 

Howard Becker, a key figure in the labeling theory, argued that crime and deviance are socially constructed rather than inherent qualities of an act. According to Becker, no act is intrinsically criminal or deviant; rather, it is the reaction of society and its powerful groups that defines whether something is seen as deviant or criminal.

Moral Entrepreneurs play a pivotal role in this process. These are individuals or groups who campaign to have certain behaviors defined as deviant or criminal. They use their influence to shape laws and social norms, deciding what is acceptable and unacceptable. For example:

  • Prohibition in the 1920s: Moral entrepreneurs in the U.S. successfully lobbied to criminalize alcohol consumption, reflecting their view of drinking as immoral.
  • Contemporary drug laws: Groups advocating against cannabis have historically contributed to its criminalization, despite its legal status changing in some cultures today.

Becker highlights that the creation of laws and norms often reflects the interests and values of these moral entrepreneurs rather than an objective sense of harm or danger.

The Four Ways Crime and Deviance Are Socially Constructed

1. Historical

What is deemed criminal or deviant changes over time, as societal norms, values, and laws evolve. This illustrates the role of historical context in shaping perceptions of crime and deviance.

  • Criminality Example:
    Homosexuality was criminalized in the UK until 1967, reflecting historical views rooted in conservative morality. Over the decades, attitudes shifted, leading to the legalization of same-sex marriage in 2013. This change highlights how legal definitions of crime evolve alongside changing societal attitudes toward individual rights and equality.

  • Deviance Example:
    In the 19th century, women wearing trousers was considered highly deviant, as it contradicted traditional gender norms and expectations about women's roles. Today, trousers are a standard part of women's fashion, showing how behaviours once labelled as deviant can become normalized over time.

These examples demonstrate how actions and behaviours previously considered criminal or deviant can shift as societies modernize and progress.

2. Generational

What is considered criminal can vary significantly depending on age, particularly due to legal age restrictions and societal expectations for different age groups. These restrictions highlight how age plays a crucial role in defining criminality.

  • Criminality Example:
    Age restrictions on activities such as purchasing alcohol, smoking, or engaging in certain behaviors emphasize how criminality is constructed around age. For instance, in many countries, it is illegal for individuals under the age of 18 to purchase tobacco or alcohol. While these activities are not inherently criminal for adults, engaging in them underage is classified as illegal and punishable.

    Similarly, laws regarding the age of criminal responsibility vary across societies, affecting how young people are treated in the justice system. For example, in England and Wales, the age of criminal responsibility is 10, meaning children below this age cannot be prosecuted for a crime, regardless of their actions. In contrast, many other countries set the age higher, reflecting differing views on at what age an individual can fully comprehend the criminality of their actions.

    The regulation of purchases, such as lottery tickets, energy drinks, or restricted video games, further reinforces the generational aspect of criminality. Engaging in these activities below the legal age is deemed unlawful, while for adults, they are entirely permissible.

  • Deviance Example:
    Beyond strict legal definitions, societal attitudes can also label behaviors as deviant based on age. For instance, young people smoking or drinking in public, even if not strictly illegal, may be judged harshly as deviant due to societal expectations about their age and maturity. Conversely, adults engaging in the same behaviors are less likely to be viewed negatively.

3. Contextual / Situational

The acceptability of certain actions often depends on the context or situation, highlighting the flexibility of societal norms. Behaviours that may be criminal or deviant in one scenario can be accepted or even encouraged in another.

  • Criminality Example:
    Killing is typically regarded as a serious crime (murder), but in the context of war, killing enemy combatants is often considered heroic or justified. This shows how the context of war alters the moral and legal framework surrounding the act of killing.

  • Deviance Example:
    Shouting loudly is considered acceptable and even expected in settings like sports events, where it is part of the atmosphere. However, the same behaviour in a library or place of worship is seen as deviant due to the situational expectation of quietness and respect.

These examples demonstrate how situational factors can redefine the boundaries of acceptable behaviour.

4. Cultural

Different cultures have unique norms, values, and legal systems, resulting in significant variation in what is considered criminal or deviant across societies.

  • Criminality Example:
    Alcohol consumption is legal and widely accepted in Western countries, such as the UK and the USA. However, in Islamic states like Saudi Arabia, it is strictly prohibited and considered a serious crime. This contrast reflects differing cultural and religious values around morality and behavior.

  • Deviance Example:
    In some cultures, burping after a meal is seen as a compliment to the chef and a sign of enjoyment. In others, particularly Western societies, burping publicly is considered rude and deviant.

Cultural diversity underscores how societal norms are shaped by shared beliefs and traditions, leading to varying definitions of crime and deviance.