TM8 - Factors affecting Research Design (PET)

Introduction

Sociological research is influenced by practical, ethical, and theoretical factors that shape the choice of methods, data collection, and analysis. These factors determine the feasibility of the study, its ethical integrity, and the validity of its findings. Researchers must consider questions like: Can the study be completed within the time and budget available? Will it respect participants’ rights? Will the methods produce reliable and meaningful results?

Practical factors include cost, time, and access to participants, all of which affect the study's feasibility.

Ethical factors ensure participants are protected, focusing on privacy, consent, and avoiding harm.

Theoretical factors guide researchers in selecting methods that align with their paradigm, such as positivism or interpretivism, while evaluating the reliability, validity, and generalizability of their findings.

Balancing these considerations ensures research is feasible, ethical, and meaningful. Overlooking any factor risks undermining the study’s quality, credibility, or impact on understanding society.

PRACTICAL FACTORS 

Practical factors focus on the feasibility of conducting the research, including costs, time, funding, and the characteristics of the researcher.

  1. Cost

The cost of research varies widely depending on the methods used. Large-scale surveys, such as the Census, require significant resources for data collection, participant recruitment, and analysis. In contrast, smaller-scale studies, such as Ann Oakley’s research on housework, rely on fewer participants and less funding, making them more cost-effective. Participant observation or longitudinal studies, like The 7-Up Series, often incur additional costs for travel, equipment, and extended researcher involvement.

  1. Time

Time is a critical consideration. Some methods, such as ethnographic studies, require prolonged engagement with participants. For example, Laud Humphreys' study on 'Tearoom Trade' involved extensive time observing and interviewing participants. Conversely, questionnaires or online surveys are less time-intensive, allowing researchers to collect large datasets quickly. Time constraints may also arise from external factors, such as schools being inaccessible during holidays or exams.

  1. Funding

Funding shapes the scope and methodology of research. Research funded by external bodies, like the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), often comes with specific conditions. For example, the ESRC may require quantifiable results, steering researchers toward positivist methods like surveys or structured interviews. Lack of funding may restrict the size of the sample or limit access to sophisticated analytical tools, as seen in smaller-scale qualitative studies.

  1. Personal Characteristics of the Researcher

The identity and skills of the researcher influence their access to participants and the quality of the data collected. For instance:

  • Gender: A male researcher studying female domestic violence survivors may struggle to build trust, as participants might feel uncomfortable sharing their experiences.
  • Class: Paul Willis’ study of working-class boys in Learning to Labour highlighted how a middle-class researcher could face challenges accessing and understanding working-class culture.
  • Skills: Researchers studying specific subcultures, such as Venkatesh’s study of gangs, may require unique skills or insider knowledge to gain acceptance.
  1. Access to Participants

Access is a key challenge in sociological research. Closed groups, such as gangs, religious sects, or criminal networks, are often reluctant to engage with outsiders. Sudhir Venkatesh, in Gang Leader for a Day, gained access to gang members by embedding himself in their community—a method that required significant effort and trust-building. Similarly, Anne-Marie Mac an Ghaill’s study of masculinity in schools required careful negotiation with gatekeepers, such as teachers and administrators, to access participants.

ETHICAL FACTORS 

Ethical considerations are vital in sociological research to protect participants’ rights and dignity, ensuring the research is conducted responsibly and transparently. Unlike legal requirements, ethical guidelines are moral principles designed to guide researchers in making responsible decisions. While they are not legally binding, they must be adhered to as closely as possible to maintain the integrity of the research. In rare cases, these guidelines may be bent if it is determined that the potential value of the data justifies the deviation, but such decisions must be rigorously justified.

Before a study begins, it must be approved by an ethics committee to ensure the proposed methods meet ethical standards. This oversight ensures that risks are minimized, participants are protected, and the study’s design aligns with accepted moral obligations.

Below are the key ethical guidelines and their application:

1. Confidentiality

Confidentiality ensures participants' identities are protected. Personal information, such as names or addresses, must be anonymized to prevent harm or repercussions. For example, William Whyte’s study of Italian street gangs used pseudonyms for participants, ensuring their involvement did not lead to legal or social risks.

2. Privacy

Researchers must avoid intruding into private areas or collecting information unrelated to the study. For instance, in Philippe Bourgois’ work on drug users in East Harlem, he focused on participants' experiences with addiction and avoided exploring irrelevant personal details. This respects participants' right to keep certain aspects of their lives private.

3. Informed Consent

Participants must understand the purpose, methods, and implications of the research before agreeing to take part. In Laud Humphreys’ study of tearoom trade, participants were unaware they were being observed, leading to significant ethical criticism.

However, informed consent is not always required. In public spaces where there is no expectation of privacy, researchers can observe behaviour without consent. For example, observing customer demographics in a shopping mall or recording foot traffic patterns does not require participants’ permission, as individuals are in a public setting.

For covert research, researchers may use retrospective consent through debriefing, explaining the study’s purpose and securing permission after data collection.

4. Deception

Deception may be necessary to prevent participants from altering their behaviour. For example, in Milgram’s obedience study, participants were told the research focused on learning rather than obedience to ensure authentic responses. While deception can be ethically contentious, it must be justified and followed by thorough debriefing, where participants are informed of the study’s true purpose and reassured about their actions.

5. Protection from Harm

Participants and researchers must be safeguarded against physical and psychological harm. For instance:

  • In Milgram’s obedience study, participants experienced emotional distress believing they had harmed others.
  • In Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment, both guards and prisoners faced severe psychological strain.

Researchers must take precautions to minimize harm and provide support, such as access to counselling, when necessary.

6. Debriefing

Debriefing addresses ethical concerns, particularly in cases involving deception or sensitive topics. It ensures participants understand the study’s purpose and provides support if needed. For example, Milgram debriefed participants to explain the true nature of his experiment and alleviate potential guilt or anxiety caused by their actions.

7. Right to Withdraw

Participants must have the freedom to leave the study at any time without penalty. For instance, in Asch’s conformity experiments, participants could withdraw, ensuring their autonomy and ability to opt out if they felt uncomfortable.

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While ethical guidelines provide a framework for conducting responsible research, they allow for flexibility in exceptional cases. If bending the guidelines is deemed necessary, researchers must justify their actions and take measures to minimize potential harm. Ethical oversight through committees ensures that these decisions are scrutinized and that the research remains as responsible and transparent as possible.

THEORETICAL FACTORS 

Theoretical considerations assess whether research is scientifically robust and meaningful. These include validity, reliability, representativeness, generalizability, and theoretical paradigms.

  1. Validity

Validity examines the accuracy and depth of data:

  • Accuracy: Are participants truthful? In Laud Humphreys’ study, participants may have altered their behaviour due to the covert nature of the research.
  • Depth: Interpretivist studies, such as Oakley’s interviews with housewives, emphasize depth, uncovering the underlying reasons for behaviours.
  1. Reliability

In sociology, reliability refers to the ability to replicate the process of a study using the same methods, even if the results differ. Sociologists often expect results to change over time as they study how society evolves rather than aiming to find fixed outcomes.

Positivist methods, like structured questionnaires, are highly reliable because they follow standardized procedures that can be repeated. For example, Sue Sharpe’s study Just Like a Girl highlight this. In the 1970s, Sharpe used questionnaires and interviews to explore girls’ aspirations, finding they prioritized marriage and family. When she repeated the study in the 1990s with the same methods, she found a shift toward education and careers. This shows how repeating the process can reveal changes in society over time.

Qualitative methods, like participant observation, are less reliable because they depend on the researcher’s personal involvement. For example, William Whyte’s Street Corner Society relied on his unique relationships with participants, making it hard for others to replicate the study exactly. While such methods provide rich data, they are less consistent for replication.

  1. Representativeness

Representativeness means that a sample reflects the diversity of the target population, such as differences in class, gender, and ethnicity. A representative sample is important because it allows findings to be applied to the wider population, making the research more accurate and meaningful.

For example, Stephen Ball’s study in Beachside Comprehensive included students and teachers from various backgrounds. This allowed him to explore how class, gender, and ethnicity influenced educational experiences, making his findings relevant to broader discussions about inequality in education.

If a study lacks representativeness, it risks overlooking important perspectives. For instance, a study that only includes male students would fail to show how gender shapes educational experiences. Representativeness ensures research provides a full and accurate picture of society.

  1. Generalizability

Generalizability refers to whether research findings can be applied to the wider population. Positivist studies, like Émile Durkheim’s study of suicide, achieve high generalizability by using large-scale quantitative data. Durkheim’s analysis of official statistics identified patterns in suicide rates and developed theories that could be applied to other societies.

In contrast, interpretivist studies focus on small, detailed samples, prioritizing depth over breadth. For example, Ann Oakley’s research on housework provided rich insights into women’s experiences but was criticized for being difficult to generalize due to its small, specific sample.

While small-scale studies offer valuable insights into unique groups, their findings are harder to generalize. Combining large-scale quantitative methods with qualitative approaches can balance depth and generalizability.

  1. Theoretical Paradigm

Sociological research is influenced by theoretical perspectives:

  • Positivists, like Durkheim, advocate for quantitative methods to uncover patterns and social facts. For example, Durkheim’s study of suicide identified correlations between social integration and suicide rates.
  • Interpretivists, like Max Weber, focus on qualitative methods to understand the meanings behind actions. Weber’s concept of Verstehen emphasizes empathy and insight into participants' experiences.