TM3 - Marxism and Neo-Marxism 

Key Concepts in Marxism 

Marxism introduces key concepts to explain society's structure and dynamics. One crucial concept is historical materialism. Marx refers to material needs such as food, shelter, and clothing, which we must create to survive. "Historical" signifies the struggle between the haves and the have-nots, a class-based conflict inherent in every society. This historical materialism is also economically determined, a concept known as economic determinism. Thus, the economy is seen as the driving force in society, inextricably linked to social change.

Another key concept in Marxism is the economic base and superstructure. Every society comprises these two elements, though they differ in form and interrelationship. The economic base is the material economic infrastructure, which includes the means of production (tools, machinery, technology, land) and the relations of production (the relationship between workers and owners). The superstructure consists of ideological, cultural, and political institutions and practices that arise from the economic base. This includes societal norms, values, and ideologies, which are transferred from social institutions to individuals. Marxism employs a top-down approach, meaning social institutions dictate societal norms and values. According to Marx, the superstructure exists to maintain and legitimize the interests of the ruling class—the bourgeoisie—and ensure their economic dominance.

Historical Modes of Production

Marx identified several historical modes of production, each with distinct economic relationships:

1. Primitive Communism: Characterized by hunter-gatherer communities where people lived communally, sharing resources and labour collectively for survival. There was no private property or class distinctions.
2. Slave Society: Developed with agriculture and settled communities, leading to surplus production and the emergence of social classes. Examples include ancient Greece and Rome, where the ruling class exploited slave labour. Citizens had rights and property, while slaves did not.
3. Feudalism: Characterized by a hierarchical structure with land-owning nobles and peasant workers. Peasants, bound to the land rather than the landowners, provided agricultural labour in exchange for protection and the right to live on the land. This system saw the emergence of the nobility and serfdom in medieval Europe.
4. Capitalism: Emerged during the Industrial Revolution, marked by private ownership of the means of production. The bourgeoisie owned factories and machinery, while the proletariat provided labour, leading to significant wealth disparities and worker exploitation. Workers became alienated from the products they created, having to buy them at marked-up prices, with profits benefiting the owners rather than the workers. This system is characterized by the pursuit of profit and capital accumulation.
5. Socialism: According to Marx, the proletariat would eventually recognize their exploitation, leading to a revolution that would overthrow capitalism and transition to socialism. In the socialist stage, the means of production are owned by the government rather than individuals. While the monetary system and labor persist, there is minimal private ownership, with the government controlling most resources. Examples include the USSR, Cuba, and China, where socialism replaced capitalism but did not achieve pure communism.
6. Communism: Marx envisioned that socialism would eventually evolve into communism, a classless and moneyless society where resources are collectively owned by the whole of society, and individuals work for the common good rather than personal gain. However, Marx acknowledged that pure communism would be challenging to achieve due to human nature and the ingrained selfishness from capitalist societies. While there have been small-scale examples of communist communes, such as kibbutzim in Israel, implementing such a system on a large, global scale remains uncertain.

Capitalism and Exploitation

According to Marx, the current societal system is capitalist, characterized by a division between two classes: the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers). This creates a two-class system of "haves" and "have-nots." Marx identified three distinct features of capitalism:

1. Alienation: Workers are separated from the products of their labour, creating a disconnect between the worker and their work.
2. Concentration of the Means of Production: The bourgeoisie controls the means of production—factories, raw materials, and technology—selfishly guarding these assets.
3. Low Wages with High Profits: The proletariat is paid the minimum necessary to maximize the bourgeoisie's profits, thereby increasing their wealth and power.

Marx addresses the concept of false class consciousness to explain why the proletariat does not act against their exploitation. He argues that the proletariat lives in a state of false class consciousness, meaning they do not recognize their oppression because it is so ingrained in their daily lives. This oppression is not always extreme but rather the routine experience of low wages and alienation, perceived as normal. The bourgeoisie, through the superstructure, propagates the belief that hard work can elevate someone to the ruling class. The proletariat internalizes this belief, failing to recognize the structural barriers preventing such upward mobility. Marx also identifies the role of repressive state apparatuses—such as the military, police, and criminal justice system—in protecting the ruling class's power. While these institutions appear to protect everyone, their primary function is to maintain the bourgeoisie's wealth and power and to prevent the proletariat from revolting and overthrowing the capitalist system.

Evaluation of Marxism 

Marxism faces several criticisms:

1. Oversimplification: Marx describes a two-class system of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, but modern society is far more complex. For instance, the British Social Attitudes Survey identifies seven different classes within society.
2. Economic Determinism: Marx's view that everything in society is driven by economic factors and the capitalist system is considered too narrow, as it overlooks other significant influences on society, such as cultural, social, and political factors.
3. Outdated Approach: Marxism is often considered outdated, being a structural approach and a meta-narrative. Postmodernists argue that it no longer applies to contemporary society, which offers more choices and individual autonomy.
4. Absence of Revolution: Despite Marx's prediction of an inevitable proletarian revolution, no such revolution has occurred. This raises questions about the accuracy and applicability of Marx's theories in the current context.

Neo Marxism