Phillips and Bowling (2007) argue that ethnic minorities in the UK are disproportionately targeted by police, often due to stereotypes that associate certain ethnic groups, particularly Black individuals, with criminality. Gilroy (1982) described this phenomenon as the "myth of Black criminality," emphasizing how institutional practices perpetuate racial disparities. Stop-and-search statistics provide striking evidence of this disparity; for example, Black individuals are nine times more likely than their White counterparts to be stopped and searched.

For instance, following the 7/7 bombings, Asian communities were disproportionately targeted under anti-terrorism legislation, while Section 60 orders, which allow stop-and-search without reasonable suspicion, have disproportionately affected Black communities.

These patterns indicate that police targeting reflects systemic biases rather than differences in criminal behaviour.

A key strength lies in its ability to explain statistical disparities through institutional practices, as supported by inquiries like the Macpherson Report (1999), which exposed widespread institutional racism within the Metropolitan Police. However, critics argue that the theory relies heavily on statistical data, which can oversimplify complex issues of crime causation. Additionally, while police targeting explains overrepresentation in stop-and-search figures, it does not address differences in conviction or incarceration rates, suggesting that other factors also contribute to ethnic disparities in crime statistics. By focusing solely on policing practices, the theory risks neglecting broader socioeconomic and cultural influences.

Although this theory effectively explains disparities in stop-and-search statistics and is supported by inquiries like the Macpherson Report (1999), it does not fully account for variations in crime rates among ethnic groups. Furthermore, it relies heavily on statistical interpretations that may oversimplify the complexity of crime causation.

Triple Quandary Theory 

Tony Sewell (1997) identified three key factors contributing to higher crime rates among Black youth, which he collectively referred to as the "triple quandary."

The first factor is the absence of father figures in many Black households, which, according to Sewell, often leads young men to seek role models outside the family unit. This absence can create a vacuum filled by gang leaders or local figures who may model criminal behaviour. For instance, in communities where gang culture is prevalent, these role models can perpetuate cycles of deviance. However, this aspect of the theory has been criticized for perpetuating stereotypes about Black families and failing to acknowledge the diversity of family structures within the Black community.

The second factor is negative experiences with White culture, where Black youth face systemic bias in institutions such as schools and workplaces. Studies like Noon’s (1993) research on employment bias highlight how ethnic minority applicants with "non-White" names are less likely to be offered interviews, fostering feelings of exclusion and alienation. These experiences can lead to marginalization, pushing individuals away from mainstream norms and encouraging deviant behaviour as a form of resistance. Schools also play a significant role, with disproportionate exclusion rates for Black boys further exacerbating their sense of being "othered."

The third factor Sewell identifies is the influence of hyper-masculine portrayals in media, particularly within genres like hip-hop and drill music. These cultural narratives often glorify materialism, violence, and sexual conquest, shaping the aspirations and behaviours of young men who see these traits as pathways to respect and success. This media influence can normalize criminality, particularly in communities where socioeconomic deprivation limits access to legitimate opportunities for achieving status. While the theory effectively links cultural, systemic, and familial factors to crime, it oversimplifies the experiences of Black youth, ignoring positive role models such as Marcus Rashford and Stormzy, who challenge these stereotypes by exemplifying success and community leadership.

Critics of Sewell’s theory argue that it leans heavily on cultural explanations and underestimates structural issues such as poverty and systemic racism. Furthermore, it risks pathologizing Black culture by associating it predominantly with deviance. Despite these limitations, the triple quandary theory offers a multidimensional perspective on the challenges faced by Black youth, emphasizing the intersection of family dynamics, systemic barriers, and cultural influences in shaping patterns of criminal behaviour.

Locality Theory